CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs Jure Leskovec with Srijan Kumar , Stanford University http://cs224w.stanford.edu
¡ Main question today: Given a network with labels on some nodes, how do we assign labels to all other nodes in the network? ¡ Example: In a network, some nodes are fraudsters and some nodes are fully trusted. How do you find the other fraudsters and trustworthy nodes? 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 2
Jure Leskovec, Stanford ? ? ? ? ? ¡ Given labels of some nodes ¡ Let’s predict labels of unlabeled nodes ¡ This is called semi-supervised node classification
¡ Main question today: Given a network with labels on some nodes, how do we assign labels to all other nodes in the network? ¡ Collective classification: Idea of assigning labels to all nodes in a network together ¡ Intuition: Correlations exist in networks. Leverage them! ¡ We will look at three techniques today: § Relational classification § Iterative classification § Belief propagation 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 4
¡ Individual behaviors are correlated in a network environment ¡ Three main types of dependencies that lead to correlation: Homophily Influence Confounding 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 5
¡ Homophily : the tendency of individuals to associate and bond with similar others § “Birds of a feather flock together” § It has been observed in a vast array of network studies, based on a variety of attributes (e.g., age, gender, organizational role, etc.) § Example : people who like the same music genre are more likely to establish a social connection (meeting at concerts, interacting in music forums, etc.) ¡ Influence : social connections can influence the individual characteristics of a person. § We will cover this in depth next month! § Example : I recommend my “peculiar” musical preferences to my friends, until one of them grows to like my same favorite genres J 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 6
Example: ¡ Real social network § Nodes = people § Edges = friendship § Node color = race ¡ People are segregated by race due to homophily (Easley and Kleinberg, 2010) 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 7
¡ How do we leverage this correlation observed in networks to help predict node labels? How do we predict the labels for the nodes in beige? 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 8
¡ Similar nodes are typically close together or directly connected: § “ Guilt-by-association ”: If I am connected to a node with label 𝑌 , then I am likely to have label 𝑌 as well. § Example: Malicious/benign web page: Malicious web pages link to one another to increase visibility, look credible, and rank higher in search engines 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 9
¡ Classification label of an object 𝑃 in network may depend on: § Features of 𝑃 § Labels of the objects in 𝑃 ’s neighborhood § Features of objects in 𝑃 ’s neighborhood 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 10
Given : • Graph • Few labeled nodes Find : class (red/green) of remaining nodes Assuming : Networks have homophily 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 11
¡ Let 𝑿 be a 𝑜×𝑜 (weighted) adjacency matrix over 𝑜 nodes ¡ Let Y = −1, 0, 1 + be a vector of labels : § 1: positive node § -1: negative node § 0: unlabeled node ¡ Goal: Predict which unlabeled nodes are likely positive 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 13
¡ Intuition : Simultaneous classification of interlinked nodes using correlations ¡ Several applications § Document classification § Part of speech tagging § Link prediction § Optical character recognition § Image/3D data segmentation § Entity resolution in sensor networks § Spam and fraud detection 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 14
¡ Markov Assumption: the label Y i of one node i depends on the labels of its neighbors N i 𝑄(𝑍 / |𝑗) = 𝑄 𝑍 / 𝑂 / ) ¡ Collective classification involves 3 steps: Local Classifier Relational Classifier Collective Inference • Assign initial • Capture • Propagate labels correlations correlations between nodes through network 15 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu
Local Classifier: Used for initial label assignment Local Classifier § Predicts label based on node attributes/features • Assign initial § Standard classification task labels § Does not use network information Relational Classifier: Capture correlations based Relational Classifier on the network • Capture Learns a classier to label one node based on the • correlations labels and/or attributes of its neighbors between nodes This is where network information is used • Collective Inference: Propagate the correlation Collective Inference Apply relational classifier to each node iteratively • Iterate until the inconsistency between neighboring • • Propagate correlations labels is minimized through network Network structure substantially affects the final • prediction 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 16
¡ Exact inference is practical only when the network satisfies certain conditions § Exact inference is NP-hard for arbitrary networks ¡ We will look at techniques for approximate inference: Intuition: Exact vs. Approximate If we represent every node as a discrete random variable with a joint § Relational classifiers mass function 𝑞 of its class membership, the marginal distribution § Iterative classification of a node is the summation of 𝑞 over all the other nodes. The exact solution takes exponential § Belief propagation time in the number of nodes, therefore we use inference ¡ All are iterative algorithms techniques that approximate the solution by narrowing the scope of the propagation (e.g., only neighbors) and the number of variables by means of aggregation. 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 17
¡ How to predict the labels 𝑍 𝑗 for the nodes 𝑗 in beige? ¡ Each node 𝑗 has a feature vector 𝑔 𝑗 ¡ Labels for some nodes are given (+ for green, - for blue) ¡ Task: Find 𝑄(𝑍𝑗) given all features and the network 𝑄(𝑍𝑗) = ? 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 18
¡ Basic idea: Class probability of 𝑍 𝑗 is a weighted average of class probabilities of its neighbors ¡ For labeled nodes, initialize with ground-truth 𝑍 labels ¡ For unlabeled nodes, initialize 𝑍 uniformly ¡ Update all nodes in a random order until convergence or until maximum number of iterations is reached 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 19
¡ Repeat for each node 𝑗 and label 𝑑 1 𝑄 𝑍 / = 𝑑 = ∑ /,: ∈< 𝑋(𝑗, 𝑘) = 𝑋 𝑗, 𝑘 𝑄(𝑍 : = 𝑑) /,: ∈< § 𝑋(𝑗, 𝑘) is the edge strength from 𝑗 to 𝑘 ¡ Challenges: § Convergence is not guaranteed § Model cannot use node feature information 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 20
Initialization: All labeled nodes to their labels, and all unlabeled nodes uniformly P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y=1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0 P(Y=1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y = 1) = 0 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 21
¡ Update for the 1 st Iteration: § For node 3, N 3 ={1,2,4} P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y=1|N 3 ) = 1/3 (0 + 0 + 0.5) = 0.17 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0 P(Y=1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y = 1) = 0 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 22
¡ Update for the 1 st Iteration: § For node 4, N 4 ={1,3, 5, 6} P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y=1) = 0.17 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0 P(Y=1|N 4 )= ¼(0+ 0.17+0.5+1) P(Y = 1) = 0.5 = 0.42 P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y = 1) = 0 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 23
¡ Update for the 1 st Iteration: § For node 5, N 5 ={4,6,7,8} P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y=1) = 0.17 P(Y=1|N 5 ) = ¼ (0.42+1+1+0.5) = 0.73 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 0 P(Y=1|N 4 )= 0.42 P(Y = 1) = 0.5 P(Y = 1) = 1 P(Y = 1) = 0 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 24
After Iteration 1 P(Y = 1) = 0.17 P(Y = 1) = 0.73 P(Y = 1) = 1.00 P(Y = 1) = 0 P(Y = 1) = 0.42 P(Y = 1) = 0.91 P(Y = 1) = 0 10/17/19 Jure Leskovec, Stanford CS224W: Machine Learning with Graphs, http://cs224w.stanford.edu 25
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