Examples of Field Research Examples of Field Research Research - - PDF document

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Chapter 10: Qualitative Field Chapter 10: Qualitative Field Research Research

• Topics Appropriate to Field Research

Topics Appropriate to Field Research

• Special Considerations in Qualitative Field

Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Research Research

• Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms

Some Qualitative Field Research Paradigms

• Conducting Qualitative Field Research

Conducting Qualitative Field Research

• Strengths and Weaknesses or Qualitative Field

Strengths and Weaknesses or Qualitative Field Research Research

• Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research

Research Ethics in Qualitative Field Research

Examples of Field Research Examples of Field Research

• Studying the Satanists (Randall Alfred, 1976)

Studying the Satanists (Randall Alfred, 1976)

• Subject: The Church of Satan based in San Francisco

Subject: The Church of Satan based in San Francisco

• Time period: 1968

Time period: 1968 -

• 1973

1973

• Became a member of the church, was given administrative

Became a member of the church, was given administrative as well as magical responsibilities, and was appointed to as well as magical responsibilities, and was appointed to the “ruling” body of the church the “ruling” body of the church

• Life in the streets (Liebow, 1967)

Life in the streets (Liebow, 1967)

• Subject: Street life of African Americans

Subject: Street life of African Americans

• Made friends with the subjects, recorded what they said,

Made friends with the subjects, recorded what they said, did, and the related contexts did, and the related contexts

• Went to places where the subjects would go

Went to places where the subjects would go

• Helped the subjects by given legal advice

Helped the subjects by given legal advice

What are the topics appropriate for What are the topics appropriate for field research? field research?

• Attitudes and behaviors best understood in a

Attitudes and behaviors best understood in a natural setting. natural setting.

• Social processes over time.

Social processes over time.

What are the elements of social life that What are the elements of social life that are appropriate to field research? are appropriate to field research?

• Practices: talking, reading a book

Practices: talking, reading a book

• Episodes: divorce, crime, illness

Episodes: divorce, crime, illness

• Encounters: people meeting and interacting

Encounters: people meeting and interacting

• Role: occupations, family roles

Role: occupations, family roles

• Relationships: friendships, family

Relationships: friendships, family

• Groups: cliques, teams, work groups

Groups: cliques, teams, work groups

• Organizations: hospitals, schools

Organizations: hospitals, schools

• Settlements: neighborhoods, ghettoes

Settlements: neighborhoods, ghettoes

• Social worlds: "wall street", "the sports world“

Social worlds: "wall street", "the sports world“

• Lifestyles (subcultures): urban, homeless

Lifestyles (subcultures): urban, homeless

What are the various roles of the What are the various roles of the researcher in field research? researcher in field research?

• Complete participant

Complete participant

• The researcher's identity and purpose are not known to

The researcher's identity and purpose are not known to those being observed in the compete participant role. those being observed in the compete participant role.

• Participant

Participant-

• as

as-

• observer
• bserver
• The researcher fully participates the social activity, but

The researcher fully participates the social activity, but people being studied know the researcher's identity. people being studied know the researcher's identity.

• Observer

Observer-

• as

as-

• participant

participant

• The researcher identifies himself and his purpose, has some

The researcher identifies himself and his purpose, has some interaction but not extensive participation. interaction but not extensive participation.

• Complete observer

Complete observer

• The researcher is a complete observer of a social situation

The researcher is a complete observer of a social situation without becoming a part of it. without becoming a part of it.

What is reactivity? What is reactivity?

• Reactivity

Reactivity The problem that the subjects of social research may The problem that the subjects of social research may react to the fact of being studied, thus altering their react to the fact of being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have been normally. behavior from what it would have been normally.

• Reactivity becomes an issue when the researcher has

Reactivity becomes an issue when the researcher has the role of “p the role of “participant articipant-

• as

as-

• observer” or “o
• bserver” or “observer

bserver-

• as

as-

• participant” because in these two cases subjects know

participant” because in these two cases subjects know they are being studied. they are being studied.

• Reactivity affects the validity of the research.

Reactivity affects the validity of the research.

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What are the major field research What are the major field research paradigms? paradigms?

• Naturalism

Naturalism

• Approach to field research based on the assumption that an objec

Approach to field research based on the assumption that an objective tive social reality exists and can be observed and reported accuratel social reality exists and can be observed and reported accurately. y.

• Ethnography

Ethnography

• A report on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate de

A report on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate description scription rather than explanation. rather than explanation.

• Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology

• An approach to the study of social life that focuses on the disc

An approach to the study of social life that focuses on the discovery of

• very of

implicit, usually unspoken assumptions and agreements. implicit, usually unspoken assumptions and agreements.

• Grounded theory

Grounded theory

• An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts

An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to to generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding

• bservations.
• bservations.

What are the major field research What are the major field research paradigms? paradigms? -

• Continued

Continued

• Case studies

Case studies

• In

In-

• depth examination of a single instance of some social phenomenon

depth examination of a single instance of some social phenomenon, , such as a village, a family, or a juvenile gang. such as a village, a family, or a juvenile gang.

• The extended case method

The extended case method

• Technique in which case study observations are used to discover

Technique in which case study observations are used to discover flaws flaws in and to improve existing social theories. in and to improve existing social theories.

• Institutional ethnography

Institutional ethnography

• Research technique in which the personal experiences of individu

Research technique in which the personal experiences of individuals als are used to reveal power relationships and other characteristics are used to reveal power relationships and other characteristics of the

• f the

institutions within which they operate. institutions within which they operate.

• Participatory action research

Participatory action research

• Approach to social research in which the people being studied ar

Approach to social research in which the people being studied are e given control over the purpose and procedures of the research; i given control over the purpose and procedures of the research; intended ntended as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior to those to those they study. they study.

What are some important aspects of What are some important aspects of the process of field research? the process of field research?

• How to prepare for the field?

How to prepare for the field?

• How to do sampling in field research?

How to do sampling in field research?

• How to conduct qualitative interviewing?

How to conduct qualitative interviewing?

• What are focus groups?

What are focus groups?

• How to record observations?

How to record observations?

How to preparing for field work? How to preparing for field work?

• In most cases, fill in your knowledge of the

In most cases, fill in your knowledge of the subject by doing a literature review. subject by doing a literature review.

• Discuss the group you plan to research with an

Discuss the group you plan to research with an informant. informant.

• Develop an identity with the people to be

Develop an identity with the people to be studied: complete participant studied: complete participant – – complete complete

• bserver and roles in between
• bserver and roles in between
• Realize that your initial contact with the group

Realize that your initial contact with the group can influence your observations. can influence your observations.

How to do sampling in field How to do sampling in field research? research?

• Nonprobability sampling is common because a

Nonprobability sampling is common because a sampling frame is usually not available. Any of the sampling frame is usually not available. Any of the following methods can be used. following methods can be used.

• Quota sampling

Quota sampling

• Snowball sampling

Snowball sampling

• Deviant cases: Find people different from the rest of the group.

Deviant cases: Find people different from the rest of the group.

• Problem with generalizability:

Problem with generalizability:

• As with all non

As with all non-

• probability sampling, one can never know

probability sampling, one can never know how representative the sample is . As such , generalizability how representative the sample is . As such , generalizability becomes an issue. becomes an issue.

How to conduct qualitative How to conduct qualitative interviews? interviews? – – Seven stages Seven stages

1. 1.

Thematizing: clarify the purpose of the interviews Thematizing: clarify the purpose of the interviews and the concepts to be explored and the concepts to be explored

2. 2.

Design: lay out the process through which you will Design: lay out the process through which you will accomplish your purpose accomplish your purpose

3. 3.

Interviewing: do the actual interviews Interviewing: do the actual interviews

4. 4.

Transcribing: create a written text of the interviews Transcribing: create a written text of the interviews

5. 5.

Analyzing: determine the meaning of the material Analyzing: determine the meaning of the material to the topic under study to the topic under study

6. 6.

Verifying and checking facts: check the reliability Verifying and checking facts: check the reliability and validity of the material and validity of the material

7. 7.

Reporting: tell others what you have learned Reporting: tell others what you have learned

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What are focus groups? What are focus groups?

• Focus group is a group of subjects interviewed

Focus group is a group of subjects interviewed together, prompting a discussion. together, prompting a discussion.

• The technique is frequently used by market

The technique is frequently used by market researchers, who ask a group of consumers to researchers, who ask a group of consumers to evaluate a product or discuss a type of evaluate a product or discuss a type of commodity, for example. commodity, for example.

• Typically 12

Typically 12-

• 15 people are brought together in

15 people are brought together in a room to engage in a guided discussion of the a room to engage in a guided discussion of the research topic. research topic.

What are the advantages of focus What are the advantages of focus groups? groups?

• Able to capture real

Able to capture real-

• life data in a social environment

life data in a social environment

• Flexible

Flexible

• High face validity

High face validity

• Speedy results

Speedy results

• Low in cost

Low in cost

• May bring up issues researchers have not thought

May bring up issues researchers have not thought about about

What are the difficulties and What are the difficulties and disadvantages of focus groups? disadvantages of focus groups?

• Less control than individual interviews.

Less control than individual interviews.

• Data can be difficult to analyze.

Data can be difficult to analyze.

• Moderators must be skilled.

Moderators must be skilled.

• If more than one group is used on the same

If more than one group is used on the same topic, difference between groups can be topic, difference between groups can be troublesome. troublesome.

• Groups are difficult to assemble.

Groups are difficult to assemble.

• Discussion must be conducted in a conducive

Discussion must be conducted in a conducive environment. environment.

How to take field research notes? How to take field research notes?

• Don’t trust your memory. Take notes while

Don’t trust your memory. Take notes while you observe. you observe.

• Take sketchy notes in the field and rewrite

Take sketchy notes in the field and rewrite them later, filling in the details. them later, filling in the details.

• Record everything.

Record everything.

• Things that don't seem important may turn out to

Things that don't seem important may turn out to be significant. be significant.

• Realize that most of your field notes will not

Realize that most of your field notes will not be reflected in your final project. be reflected in your final project.

What are the strengths of field What are the strengths of field research? research?

• Permits a great depth of understanding.

Permits a great depth of understanding.

• Flexibility

Flexibility -

• research may be modified at any

research may be modified at any time. time.

• Inexpensive

Inexpensive

• Has more validity than surveys or experiments.

Has more validity than surveys or experiments.

What are the weaknesses of field What are the weaknesses of field research? research?

• Qualitative and not appropriate for statistical

Qualitative and not appropriate for statistical descriptions of populations. descriptions of populations.

• Has potential problems with reliability since

Has potential problems with reliability since field research methods are often personal. field research methods are often personal.

• Has potential problems with generalizability

Has potential problems with generalizability because samples are quite often not randomly because samples are quite often not randomly selected. selected.

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Think about these questions: Is it Think about these questions: Is it ethical? ethical?

• To talk to people when they don't know you will be

To talk to people when they don't know you will be recording their words? recording their words?

• To get information for your own purposes from people you

To get information for your own purposes from people you hate? hate?

• To see a severe need for help and not respond to it

To see a severe need for help and not respond to it directly? directly?

• To be in a situation but not commit yourself

To be in a situation but not commit yourself wholeheartedly to it? wholeheartedly to it?

• To be strategic in your relations with others?

To be strategic in your relations with others?

• To take sides or avoid taking sides in a factionalized

To take sides or avoid taking sides in a factionalized situation? situation?

• To "pay" people with tradeoffs for access to their lives and

To "pay" people with tradeoffs for access to their lives and minds? minds?

• To "use" people as allies or informants in order to gain

To "use" people as allies or informants in order to gain entrée to other people or to elusive understandings? entrée to other people or to elusive understandings?

Sample Article Sample Article

• Salari, Sonia M. & Melinda Rich (2002). Social and

Salari, Sonia M. & Melinda Rich (2002). Social and environmental infantilization of aged persons: environmental infantilization of aged persons: Observations in two adult day care centers. Observations in two adult day care centers. International Journal of Aging and Human International Journal of Aging and Human Development. Development.

• Literature review:

Literature review:

• Societal treatment of old age as a “second childhood”, especiall

Societal treatment of old age as a “second childhood”, especially in y in total institutions, which can cause “self mortification (loss of total institutions, which can cause “self mortification (loss of self self identity)”. identity)”.

• Social infantilization can lead to a loss of identity, lowered s

Social infantilization can lead to a loss of identity, lowered status, tatus, decreased sense of self efficacy, social marginalization, and decreased sense of self efficacy, social marginalization, and humiliation, which will further lead to social responses such as humiliation, which will further lead to social responses such as withdrawal, aggressive behaviors, adoption of lowered sense of withdrawal, aggressive behaviors, adoption of lowered sense of responsibility and even child responsibility and even child-

• like behavior.

like behavior.

• Theoretical framework:

Theoretical framework:

• Goffman’s total institution leading to self mortification

Goffman’s total institution leading to self mortification

• Research questions:

Research questions:

• What are the social interaction patterns of elderly

What are the social interaction patterns of elderly persons in the two adult day care centers? persons in the two adult day care centers?

• How do differing levels of infantilization in the social

How do differing levels of infantilization in the social and environmental settings of the centers lead to varying and environmental settings of the centers lead to varying atmospheres which require adaptation on the part of atmospheres which require adaptation on the part of elderly clients? elderly clients?

• Do these adaptations have an impact on the client social

Do these adaptations have an impact on the client social interaction patterns? interaction patterns?

• Mode of observation

Mode of observation

• Non

Non-

• participant observations

participant observations

• Two researchers

Two researchers

• Total of 80 hours of observation, approximately 40

Total of 80 hours of observation, approximately 40 at each location at each location

• Observations occurred within a four month period

Observations occurred within a four month period at random times and days, ranging from 7:30am to at random times and days, ranging from 7:30am to 6pm Monday through Friday. 6pm Monday through Friday.

• First center observations in 1989, second center

First center observations in 1989, second center

• bservations in 1996
• bservations in 1996
• Entry into the center: author contact to the center

Entry into the center: author contact to the center director director

• What are observed?

What are observed?

• Social interaction patterns

Social interaction patterns

• Verbal and non

Verbal and non-

• verbal

verbal

• Client to staff, staff to client, client to client, staff to

Client to staff, staff to client, client to client, staff to staff staff

• Formal activities recorded and counted

Formal activities recorded and counted

• Infantilization

Infantilization

• Speech

Speech

• Behavior

Behavior

• Activities

Activities

• Social environments (bathroom facility as an example)

Social environments (bathroom facility as an example)

• Results:

Results:

• Center A has a great deal of infantilization

Center A has a great deal of infantilization

• Language and behavior examples

Language and behavior examples

• 47 group activities recorded, 74% had some form of

47 group activities recorded, 74% had some form of infantilization infantilization

• Open style bathroom

Open style bathroom

• Center B has more adult

Center B has more adult-

• appropriate speech/

appropriate speech/ behavior patterns and physical environment behavior patterns and physical environment

• Language and behavior examples

Language and behavior examples

• 59 group activities recorded, 24 had some form of

59 group activities recorded, 24 had some form of infantilization infantilization

• Private bathroom

Private bathroom

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Try this exercise: Try this exercise:

• Suppose you are interested in power relationships in hospital

Suppose you are interested in power relationships in hospital settings (e.g., between doctors and nurses, etc.). That is, you settings (e.g., between doctors and nurses, etc.). That is, you suspect doctors have the most power, much more than other suspect doctors have the most power, much more than other medical professionals. medical professionals.

• Answer the following questions about the power dynamics in a

Answer the following questions about the power dynamics in a medical setting: medical setting:

• How would you study power dynamics in a hospital setting from ea

How would you study power dynamics in a hospital setting from each ch

• f the four roles of the field observer (in 4 separate studies,
• f the four roles of the field observer (in 4 separate studies, obviously).
• bviously).

Explain each scenario. Explain each scenario.

• Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of studying power dynam

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of studying power dynamics ics from each of these 4 roles. from each of these 4 roles.

• Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of examining the issues of

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of examining the issues of power power dynamics with field research as opposed to surveys. Make sure y dynamics with field research as opposed to surveys. Make sure you

• u

include the issues of reliability and validity. include the issues of reliability and validity.

Read this research article more Read this research article more carefully: carefully:

• Salari, Sonia M. & Melinda Rich (2002). Social and

Salari, Sonia M. & Melinda Rich (2002). Social and environmental infantilization of aged persons: environmental infantilization of aged persons: Observations in two adult day care centers. Observations in two adult day care centers. International Journal of Aging and Human International Journal of Aging and Human Development Development

• Think about the process the researchers used. What

Think about the process the researchers used. What role did they play? Were there ethnical concerns? role did they play? Were there ethnical concerns? Could other modes of observation be used for this Could other modes of observation be used for this topic? What would be the pros and cons of using this topic? What would be the pros and cons of using this method? Are the results generalizable? method? Are the results generalizable?