Ethnic inequalities in later life James Nazroo Sociology, CoDE and MICRA james.nazroo@manchester.ac.uk www.ethnicity.ac.uk
Classifying ethnicity: The 2011 English Census
The ethnic minority population of England & Wales (19.5% of the total population) White Irish 0.9% Indian (incl mixed) 3.1% White Other 4.4% Pakistani 2.0% Bangladeshi 0.8% African (incl mixed) 2.1% Chinese 0.7% Caribbean (incl Other 3.6% mixed) 1.8%
Age profile of ethnic groups in England and Wales Under 15 15-39 40-64 65 or older 100% 2% 4% 4% 5% 7% 9% 19% 16% 19% 23% 31% 24% 80% 25% 28% 35% 60% 48% 45% 44% 40% 44% 36% 59% 40% 30% 20% 24% 33% 31% 31% 27% 23% 16% 12% 5% 0% Bangladeshi Pakistani Indian (incl. African Caribbean Chinese White Irish White British mixed) (incl. mixed) (incl. mixed)
The ethnic minority population of England & Wales, those aged 65 or older (8% of all aged 65 or older) White Irish Indian (incl 1.8% mixed) 1.3% Pakistani 0.5% Bangladeshi 0.1% Chinese 0.2% White Other 1.8% Other 0.1% African (incl Caribbean (incl mixed) 0.3% mixed) 1.0%
Proportion born outside the UK 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Chinese Bangladeshi Pakistani Indian Caribbean White Irish
Ethnicity, race and growing older in the UK Key themes � Migration in a post-war, but also post-colonial, context (who migrated, when and why). � Post-migration circumstances in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s. � Changing significance of ethnic identities and how they structure social relations – prejudice, racism and discrimination, and their material consequences. � Generation and period: contexts and change. � Cumulative disadvantage across the life course – double/triple jeopardy? � Establishing and building communities, the importance of neighbourhood and belonging – segregation, integration and community cohesion. � Cross-national connections and return migration.
Reported fair or bad health by age 100% Bangladeshi 80% Pakistani Indian Caribbean White, not English 60% White English 40% 20% 0% 2-5 5-9 10-12 13-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-60 61-70 > 70
Reported fair or bad health by age Difference in Percent Compared with White English 60% Bangladeshi 50% Pakistani Indian 40% Caribbean White, not English 30% 20% 10% 0% -10% 2-5 5-9 10-12 13-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-60 61-70 > 70
Reported fair or bad health by migration Pakistani 80% Born in England 70% Born outside England 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2-5 5-9 10-12 13-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-60 61-70 > 70
Reported fair or bad health by migration White, not English 60% Born in England Born outside England 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 2-5 5-9 10-12 13-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-60 61-70 > 70
Employment rates: men aged 50 to 65 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Bangladeshi Pakistani Indian Caribbean White, not White English English
Male employment rates: old compared with young Per cent of white English rate 100% Aged 30-49 Aged 50-65 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Bangladeshi Pakistani Indian Caribbean White minority
Persisting ethnic inequalities in unemployment 1991-2001-2011 35% Bangladeshi Black Caribbean 30% Indian White 25% Pakistani Percent unemployed 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011 Men (aged 25-49) Women (aged 25-49) Kapadia et al , (Census 1991-2011)
Growing ethnic inequalities in part-time employment 1991-2001-2011 45% Bangladeshi 40% Black Caribbean Indian 35% White Pakistani 30% Part-time employed 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 1991 2001 2011 1991 2001 2011 Men (aged 25-49) Women (aged 25-49) Kapadia et al , (Census 1991-2011)
Ethnicity, generation and occupational class I/II IIIm/nm IV/V 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd Bangladeshi Pakistani Indian Black Caribbean Irish
Period and cohort effects: odds of manual occupational class compared with white British (men) 10 10.5 1 1971 cohort 1971 cohort in 2011 2011 cohort 0.1 Bangladshi Pakistani Indian Black Caribbean Irish Karlsen, Nazroo and Smith, 2013
Changing ethnic inequalities in education 1991-2001-2011 45% 40% 35% Percent with a degree 30% 25% 20% 15% Chinese Indian 10% White Black Caribbean Pakistani Bangladeshi 5% 0% 1991 2001 2011 Lymperopoulou and Parameshwaran (Census 1991-2011)
Ethnicity, generation and educational level Degree equivalent A level equivalent to degree NVQ1/2 No recognised qualification 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd 1st 1.5/2nd Bangladeshi Pakistani Indian Black Caribbean Irish
Equivalised income (aged 50 and older) Bottom tertile Middle tertile Top tertile 100% 80% 60% 94% 40% 75% 56% 55% 20% 37% 36% 0% White English White, not Caribbean Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi English
Income, ethnicity and reported fair or bad health 40% Top Tertile Middle Tertile Bottom Tertile 30% 20% 10% 0% White White Chinese Caribbean Indian Pakistani Bangladeshi English minority
Experiences of racism and discrimination � One in eight ethnic minority people report experiencing racial harassment over the last year. � Repeated racial harassment is a common experience. � 25% of ethnic minority people say they are fearful of racial harassment. � 20% of ethnic minority people report being refused a job for racial reasons, and almost three-quarters of them say it has happened more than once. � 20% of ethnic minority people believe that most employers would refuse somebody a job for racial reasons, only 12% thought no employers would do this. � White people freely report their own prejudice: � One in four say they are prejudiced against Asian people; � One in five say they are prejudiced against Caribbean people. Modood et al . (1997)
Changes in levels of racism 40% Experienced racism - Black Caribbean Experienced racism - Pakistani Experienced racism - Irish Fear of racism - Black Caribbean 30% Fear of Racism - Pakistani 20% 10% 0% 1993/4 2000/1 2008/9 Karlsen and Nazroo, (2014)
Changes in levels of racism 40% Experienced racism - Black Caribbean Experienced racism - Pakistani Experienced racism - Irish Fear of racism - Black Caribbean 30% Fear of Racism - Pakistani 20% 10% 0% 1993/4 2000/1 2008/9 Karlsen and Nazroo, (2014)
Changes in levels of racial prejudice 60% A little or very prejudiced Mind relative marrying Asian 50% Mind having an Asian boss 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1983 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2013 Storm et al , (BSA1983-2013)
Persisting prevalence of racial prejudice 60% A little or very prejudiced Mind relative marrying Asian 50% Mind having an Asian boss 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 1983 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2013 Storm et al , (BSA1983-2013)
Racism, discrimination and health Predicted per cent reporting fair or poor health 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% None Verbal Physical/ No or a Some or No Yes property few most Racial harassment Do employers discriminate? Fear or racism Karlsen and Nazroo 2002, 2004
Influences on quality of life: what older people say � Income and wealth � Health: mental and physical, coping � Relative independence and dealing with dependency � Support networks � Having time � Having a role � Grandparenting, caring for parents and partners; � Closeness to family, multigenerational households; � Opportunities related to the local community/neighbourhood, often channelled through ethnicity and/or religion; � Paid and unpaid work (significance of employment history and route into retirement).
Pakistani man, 70s, the importance of community I: So you go to the Mosque at 3 in the morning? R: 3.30am ... I go and open the doors, I get there first … At every prayer … [the Mosque] is very close down there (inaudible) it is about five minutes. I open the doors for all five prayers. [Later in the interview] R: We bought [the Mosque] as a factory, there were small rooms we knocked them down and made a big hall. These others have been newly built, the land was bought and they were made but the Sufi Abdullah one (inaudible), there is one on Belgrave Road, Jammia Masjid, the one that was built first. There are many Mosques, there are many facilities the children go to read there. I: You have started Madrasas (schools for religious education)? R: Yes Madrasas. We have Allah’s blessing every thing is very nice.
Pakistan man, mid 60s, the pressure of community I know so many people in Birmingham and there is no week without having to attend 2 or 3 weddings because they call me and if you don’t go then there is no respect and they think he didn’t come because of the money but they don’t know your financial position, the government doesn’t give you money for the weddings.
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