Arbitrary signs and the emergence of language Denis Bouchard Basic - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Arbitrary signs and the emergence of language Denis Bouchard Basic questions Question 1: How How and why did language evolve and why did language evolve Question 1: in humans humans but not in but not in other species other species? ?
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Seven Seven parts of a parts of a sign sign: :
Form Form: : l lI
IDl
Dl star star Meaning Meaning: : [ [Property
Property
LITTLE] LITTLE] [TYPE: STAR] [TYPE: STAR] Link Link 1 1: : || || || ||
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Physical Physical: : particular sound waves
particular sound waves
particular sound waves
particular sound waves
Cognitive Cognitive: : chunk chunk of cognition
chunk chunk of cognition
Link Link 3 3: : || || || || Link Link 2 2: : || || || ||
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(Stephens 1972, Ménard)
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Premack 2004; Fedor et al. 2009
1) language: signs and syntactic combinations 1) language: signs and syntactic combinations 2) Imitation 2) Imitation (Meltzoff & Moore 1997, Rizzolatti & Craighero 2004, Karmiloff_Smith 2006) 3) developed Theory of Mind 3) developed Theory of Mind (Flavell 1992, Povinelli 2000) 4) understanding of cause and effect 4) understanding of cause and effect (Penna & Povinelli 2007) 5) efficient teaching 5) efficient teaching 6) social trust and collaboration 6) social trust and collaboration 7) pointing, shared attention, deictic reference 7) pointing, shared attention, deictic reference 8) detachment from immediate situation, episodic memory 8) detachment from immediate situation, episodic memory (of noncurrent scenes and events) (Gärdenfors & Osvath 2005)
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9) large brain 9) large brain 10) ApoE4 ( 10) ApoE4 (apolipoprotein apolipoprotein E4) E4) (provides better synaptic interactions)
(Bufill & Carbonell 2004)
11) plasticity of the brain for several functions 11) plasticity of the brain for several functions (Fedor et al. 2009, Hagoort 2009) 12) offline brain systems (OBS) 12) offline brain systems (OBS) (“offline” activations, inhibiting input or output) (Hurley 2008)
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13) 13) bipedalism bipedalism 14) fine control over vocal tract 14) fine control over vocal tract 15) fine control over hand and finger movements 15) fine control over hand and finger movements
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16) long dependency during infancy 16) long dependency during infancy 17) art, culture 17) art, culture 18) tool use 18) tool use
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(Bufill & Carbonell 2004)
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primary representational system primary representational system: : from reality to sensory perception; simple representations with almost from reality to sensory perception; simple representations with almost nothing between stimulus and response nothing between stimulus and response mapping from sensory perception to categorization: mapping from sensory perception to categorization: neural linking of similar results from various sensory input; neural linking of similar results from various sensory input; ex.: a leopard ex.: a leopard’ ’s spots, roar and smell s spots, roar and smell
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mapping from categories to concepts: mapping from categories to concepts: abstracted from any sensory input, any immediacy; abstracted from any sensory input, any immediacy; a category used offline in a category used offline in OBSs OBSs
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(Prigogine)
A chaotic system: there are infinitely many incrementally different vocal A chaotic system: there are infinitely many incrementally different vocal forms that we can produce and perceive forms that we can produce and perceive
Production Production: some vocalizations are easier to pronounce and require less : some vocalizations are easier to pronounce and require less energy: this favors their use and frequency energy: this favors their use and frequency (Lindblom 1992) Perception Perception: our perceptual system sets upper bounds on the vocal : our perceptual system sets upper bounds on the vocal distinctions which we can perceive distinctions which we can perceive (Nowak et al. 1999) These self-organizing constraints maximize contrastive dispersion These self-organizing constraints maximize contrastive dispersion and create and create clusterings clusterings in a few particular in a few particular “ “hot spots hot spots” ” 8 discrete regions of a tube like the vocal tract which correspond to 8 discrete regions of a tube like the vocal tract which correspond to places of articulation in natural languages places of articulation in natural languages (Oudeyer 2005, Ménard)
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The solution to this The solution to this “ “problem problem” ”: the vocalizations become compositional : the vocalizations become compositional Where do the compositional processes of come from? Where do the compositional processes of come from?
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Universal material properties of vocal units (phonemes): Universal material properties of vocal units (phonemes):
These properties are percepts already in the stock of our perceptual These properties are percepts already in the stock of our perceptual
Phonological compositional processes are simply functional uses of Phonological compositional processes are simply functional uses of preexisting material properties, such as order and juxtaposition preexisting material properties, such as order and juxtaposition
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In a system of arbitrary signs, a vocal signifier can be any element In a system of arbitrary signs, a vocal signifier can be any element among those recognized by the perceptual system: among those recognized by the perceptual system:
a phoneme a phoneme a juxtaposition of phonemes a juxtaposition of phonemes As a result of various material constraints, a limited number of discrete As a result of various material constraints, a limited number of discrete phonemes and their combinations emerged from self-organization in the phonemes and their combinations emerged from self-organization in the chaotic system of the speech sounds represented by chaotic system of the speech sounds represented by OBSs OBSs. . They constitute the potential signifiers They constitute the potential signifiers a tone on a phoneme, etc. a tone on a phoneme, etc.
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Ontology: Ontology: our perceptual
attentional systems treat the world as systems treat the world as containing two basic kinds of entities: containing two basic kinds of entities: (Hurford 2007)
1) Objects ( 1) Objects (“ “something is there something is there” ”) ) 2) Properties of these objects ( 2) Properties of these objects (“ “what is there what is there” ”) ) These two kinds of entities correspond to two separate neural pathways These two kinds of entities correspond to two separate neural pathways in the visual system. in the visual system.
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Extremely large number of potential concepts: Extremely large number of potential concepts:
Quine indeterminacy) indeterminacy)
countless possible ways to partition the conceptual substance by a given language ( given language (Saussure Saussure’ ’s s radical arbitrariness radical arbitrariness vs vs Plato Plato’ ’s nomenclature) s nomenclature) Any of these elements can be a meaning. This introduces another Any of these elements can be a meaning. This introduces another unprecedented sort of unprecedented sort of chaotic system chaotic system in the brain. in the brain.
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Meanings: Meanings: clusters form in the mass of the conceptual substance as a clusters form in the mass of the conceptual substance as a result of frequency and accumulation due to relevance/usefulness: result of frequency and accumulation due to relevance/usefulness:
→ accumulations self- accumulations self-
general categories which are of greater usefulness which are of greater usefulness (Locke 1690)
informativeness and distinctiveness and distinctiveness → → accumulations self-organize on accumulations self-organize on basic level concepts basic level concepts (Rosch et al. 1976)
pragmatic inferences from ToM ToM and context and context → → accumulations self-organize on accumulations self-organize on general meanings general meanings because they are sufficiently precise because they are sufficiently precise
(Bouchard 1995; Origgi & Sperber 2004) 27
The random high frequencies of some meaning clusters and of The random high frequencies of some meaning clusters and of some vocal clusters increase the probability of links involving them. some vocal clusters increase the probability of links involving them.
So these links tend to accumulate and crystallize. So these links tend to accumulate and crystallize. As the accumulations grow, this leads to contrastive dispersals As the accumulations grow, this leads to contrastive dispersals
strongest distinctivity, i.e., , i.e., mutual exclusivity: mutual exclusivity: the forms and meanings of a language tend to be in a one to one the forms and meanings of a language tend to be in a one to one relationship. relationship.
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The link is an instance of the basic relation of predication that holds The link is an instance of the basic relation of predication that holds between ontological entities: a property is attributed to an object. between ontological entities: a property is attributed to an object.
A sign A sign is a reciprocal predication is a reciprocal predication: the systematic attribution of : the systematic attribution of a vocal form and a meaning to one another. a vocal form and a meaning to one another. Since any link is possible, signs are potentially infinite. Since any link is possible, signs are potentially infinite.
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Syntax combines signs. Syntax combines signs. So the combination of two signs operates So the combination of two signs operates simultaneously on their meaning and form. simultaneously on their meaning and form.
Meaning Meaning: : [ [Property
Property
LITTLE] LITTLE] == == R(CI) R(CI) == == [TYPE: STAR] [TYPE: STAR] Link Link: : || || || || || || Form Form: : l lI
IDl
Dl == == R(SM) R(SM) == == star star
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Syntactic compositional processes are not an innovation: they are simply Syntactic compositional processes are not an innovation: they are simply functional uses of universal preexisting properties of vocal sounds functional uses of universal preexisting properties of vocal sounds [R(SM) signifiers] and of our cognitive system [R(CI)] [R(SM) signifiers] and of our cognitive system [R(CI)] (Bouchard 1996, 2002)
Universal traits of the vocal forms of words: Universal traits of the vocal forms of words:
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1- syntactic ordering: head and object, phrase and modifier adjunct, etc. 1- syntactic ordering: head and object, phrase and modifier adjunct, etc.
2- 2- syntactic syntactic intonation: intonation: emphatic focus emphatic focus, question, exclamation, , question, exclamation, etc etc. . 3- dependent marking by order: case affixes in Latin, German 3- dependent marking by order: case affixes in Latin, German 4- dependent marking by tone: case tones in 4- dependent marking by tone: case tones in Rendille Rendille 6- head marking by tone: on the verb to mark tense or aspect in 6- head marking by tone: on the verb to mark tense or aspect in Ngiti Ngiti 5- head marking by order: object marking on verb in Mohawk 5- head marking by order: object marking on verb in Mohawk
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Its meaning is predication Its meaning is predication Its form is juxtaposition or intonation Its form is juxtaposition or intonation Why this meaning and these forms?
Predicative relation: Predicative relation: by far the most frequent meaning in our cognitive by far the most frequent meaning in our cognitive system. system. Juxtaposition and intonation: Juxtaposition and intonation: always present, so the most frequent always present, so the most frequent elements in the perceptual system. elements in the perceptual system. These elements create accumulation points in their respective domains that These elements create accumulation points in their respective domains that are so dominant that they increase the frequency of links between them to are so dominant that they increase the frequency of links between them to a degree that these links inevitably accumulate and crystallize. a degree that these links inevitably accumulate and crystallize. Order-out-of-chaos predicts that, when we develop signs, we inevitably develop combi-signs.
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In addition to In addition to combinatorial signs which combinatorial signs which produce complex signs produce complex signs, , you need three additional properties you need three additional properties to have to have Type-recursion Type-recursion: :
endocentricity (the phrase inherits the category of its head) (the phrase inherits the category of its head)
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Labels: Labels: the basic categories N and V derive from the two basic kinds of entities the basic categories N and V derive from the two basic kinds of entities (objects and properties); other categories derive from N and V (objects and properties); other categories derive from N and V Heads Heads: : Asymmetries in syntactic relations, such as head Asymmetries in syntactic relations, such as head vs vs dependent, come dependent, come from the fact that predication from the fact that predication — — the meaning of the meaning of combi-signs combi-signs — — is asymmetrical is asymmetrical (Bouchard 2002; early GG: Venneman 1974, Keenan 1978) Endocentricity Endocentricity: derives from object permanence. In the world, an object : derives from object permanence. In the world, an object to which you attribute a property remains an element of the same type to which you attribute a property remains an element of the same type
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Parsimonious assumption: the only primitives are lexical signs and Parsimonious assumption: the only primitives are lexical signs and combinatorial signs. combinatorial signs. Endocentricity Endocentricity Theorem: Theorem: the category of a complex sign is the category the category of a complex sign is the category
combi-sign applies. applies. Type-recursion occurs when a restraining sign or one of its elements happens to be of the same type as the head of the complex sign.
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We don't have to know that much to use a language: We don't have to know that much to use a language: its signs and its signs and combi-signs combi-signs. . Their properties follow from prior properties Their properties follow from prior properties Language acquisition is canalized by these properties, Language acquisition is canalized by these properties, not by a L-specific UG list of unexplained properties not by a L-specific UG list of unexplained properties
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There is an alternative to a computational model: learned fragments There is an alternative to a computational model: learned fragments (not of templates for phrases or sentences) but (not of templates for phrases or sentences) but combi-signs combi-signs
The mutation towards The mutation towards offline activation of some
neurons neurons makes sense in evolution. makes sense in evolution. Language developed as part of a complex human Language developed as part of a complex human adaptive suite. Many of these traits developed in adaptive suite. Many of these traits developed in parallel because they all come from parallel because they all come from the same micro- the same micro- anatomical brain structures with offline potential. anatomical brain structures with offline potential. Because this genetic change provides a Because this genetic change provides a pleiotropic pleiotropic advantage advantage in several domains, its in several domains, its evolvability evolvability is is high. high. 39
The capacity to form signs The capacity to form signs is the only aspect of is the only aspect of language which is new and unprecedented in the language which is new and unprecedented in the primate lineage. primate lineage. Offline Brain Systems Offline Brain Systems provide the provide the crucial crucial property property that got language started that got language started: : meanings and forms can meanings and forms can meet meet in in the brain through their "representations" the brain through their "representations". . Material canalization leads to Material canalization leads to combi-signs combi-signs (syntax) (syntax) made of the same made of the same “ “substances substances” ” as as uni-signs uni-signs. . 40