Lexical Reciprocity Yoad Winter Utrecht Institute of Linguistics, - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Lexical Reciprocity Yoad Winter Utrecht Institute of Linguistics, - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Lexical Reciprocity Yoad Winter Utrecht Institute of Linguistics, Utrecht University August 26, 2016 Referential Semantics , ESSLLI 2016 Forthcoming papers: Empirical Issues in Syntax and Semantics (Paris), Cognitive Structures (Dusseldorf), NELS


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Lexical Reciprocity

Yoad Winter

Utrecht Institute of Linguistics, Utrecht University August 26, 2016 Referential Semantics, ESSLLI 2016

Forthcoming papers: Empirical Issues in Syntax and Semantics (Paris), Cognitive Structures (Dusseldorf), NELS 2016 (UMASS) Experimental work: with Imke Kruitwagen and Eva Poortman

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1 - Introduction

Lexical reciprocity

Morpho-semantic relation between: binary predicate Sue dated Dan

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SLIDE 3

1 - Introduction

Lexical reciprocity

Morpho-semantic relation between: binary predicate Sue dated Dan collective-unary predicate Sue and Dan dated

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1 - Introduction

Types of predicates

Eventive verbs marry, meet, hug, kiss, argue Stative verbs match, rhyme, be in love, intersect Nouns partner, cousin, friend, enemy Adjectives similar, adjacent, equal, parallel

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1 - Introduction

Notes on symmetry

A binary predicate R is symmetric if for all x, y: R(x, y) ⇔ R(y, x).

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1 - Introduction

Notes on symmetry

A binary predicate R is symmetric if for all x, y: R(x, y) ⇔ R(y, x). property of binary predicates formally unrelated to reciprocity non-symmetry = asymmetry

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1 - Introduction

Familiar facts about lexical reciprocity

Symmetry and non-symmetry: Sue is Dan’s cousin = Dan is Sue’s cousin Sue is dating Dan = Dan is dating Sue Sue is hugging Dan = Dan is hugging Sue your car collided with mine = my car collided with yours

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1 - Introduction

Familiar facts about lexical reciprocity

Symmetry and non-symmetry: Sue is Dan’s cousin = Dan is Sue’s cousin Sue is dating Dan = Dan is dating Sue Sue is hugging Dan = Dan is hugging Sue your car collided with mine = my car collided with yours

the terminology “symmetric” for collectives obscures this non-symmetry

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1 - Introduction

Familiar facts about lexical reciprocity

Symmetry and non-symmetry: Sue is Dan’s cousin = Dan is Sue’s cousin Sue is dating Dan = Dan is dating Sue Sue is hugging Dan = Dan is hugging Sue your car collided with mine = my car collided with yours

the terminology “symmetric” for collectives obscures this non-symmetry

Symmetry predicts reciprocity: the vast majority of the symmetric binary predicates in English have a reciprocal parallel.

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1 - Introduction

Familiar facts about lexical reciprocity

Symmetry and non-symmetry: Sue is Dan’s cousin = Dan is Sue’s cousin Sue is dating Dan = Dan is dating Sue Sue is hugging Dan = Dan is hugging Sue your car collided with mine = my car collided with yours

the terminology “symmetric” for collectives obscures this non-symmetry

Symmetry predicts reciprocity: the vast majority of the symmetric binary predicates in English have a reciprocal parallel.

notable exceptions: far, near, resemble

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SLIDE 11

1 - Introduction

Plot

Reciprocity-Symmetry Generalization (RSG): Symmetry (date) correlates with a different type of reciprocity than non-symmetry (hug).

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1 - Introduction

Plot

Reciprocity-Symmetry Generalization (RSG): Symmetry (date) correlates with a different type of reciprocity than non-symmetry (hug).

plain reciprocity vs. pseudo-reciprocity

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1 - Introduction

Plot

Reciprocity-Symmetry Generalization (RSG): Symmetry (date) correlates with a different type of reciprocity than non-symmetry (hug).

plain reciprocity vs. pseudo-reciprocity

Proposal:

1 Symmetry is systematically derived from lexical collectivity (Lakoff

& Peters 1969)

no meanings postulates here, pace Partee (Monday)

2 Non-symmetry (hug) reflects typical polysemy of the in/transitive

forms, not logic

pace virtually all previous works

3 Dowty’s protoroles inspire a formal account of RSG: between

concepts and lexicon

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1 - Introduction

Broader perspectives

1 On the nature of “resemble” et al. – RSG as a language

universal

2 On the nature of “hug” et al. – pseudo-reciprocity as a typicality

phenomenon: experimental work with Imke Kruitwagen and Eva Poortman

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1 - Introduction

General properties of lexical reciprocals

Non-productive

#Sue and Dan praised

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1 - Introduction

General properties of lexical reciprocals

Non-productive

#Sue and Dan praised

No obvious relation to reciprocal quantifiers

Sue and Dan praised each other

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1 - Introduction

General properties of lexical reciprocals

Non-productive

#Sue and Dan praised

No obvious relation to reciprocal quantifiers

Sue and Dan praised each other

Productive morpho-syntax, notably Romance clitics – set aside

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1 - Introduction

Plan

Reciprocity-symmetry generalization Protopredicates and the RSG On pseudo-reciprocity (Kruitwagen et al.)

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Reciprocity and symmetry

Two kinds of lexical reciprocity Correlate with (non) symmetry

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Symmetric and non-symmetric predicates

Symmetric: (1) Sue dated Dan ⇔ Dan dated Sue Non-symmetric: (2) Sue hugged Dan ⇔ Dan hugged Sue

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SLIDE 21

2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Two kinds of lexical reciprocity

Plain reciprocity (plainR):

(1) Sue and Dan dated ⇔ Sue dated Dan and Dan dated Sue

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Two kinds of lexical reciprocity

Plain reciprocity (plainR):

(1) Sue and Dan dated ⇔ Sue dated Dan and Dan dated Sue

Pseudo-reciprocity (pseudoR):

(2) Sue and Dan hugged ⇔ Sue hugged Dan and Dan hugged Sue

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Two kinds of lexical reciprocity

Plain reciprocity (plainR):

(1) Sue and Dan dated ⇔ Sue dated Dan and Dan dated Sue

Pseudo-reciprocity (pseudoR):

(2) Sue and Dan hugged ⇔ Sue hugged Dan and Dan hugged Sue

Sue hugs Dan | Dan is asleep Dan hugs Sue | Sue is asleep

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Short history

1960s: symmetry assumed for lexical reciprocals Dong (1971): pseudo-reciprocity and non-symmetry 1970s-now: missing formal semantic generalizations

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Reciprocity-Symmetry Generalization

reciprocity symmetry date

⇔ +

hug

⇔ −

praise

X −

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Reciprocity-Symmetry Generalization

reciprocity symmetry date

⇔ +

hug

⇔ −

praise

X −

Generalization: Plain reciprocity (⇔) correlates with symmetry. Pseudo-reciprocity (⇔) correlates with non-symmetry.

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Reciprocity-Symmetry Generalization

reciprocity symmetry date

⇔ +

hug

⇔ −

praise

X −

Generalization: Plain reciprocity (⇔) correlates with symmetry. Pseudo-reciprocity (⇔) correlates with non-symmetry.

1

Apparently new, but hinted at in Gleitman et al. (1996)

2

Does not follow from definitions of symmetry and plain (pseudo) reciprocity

3

Stronger version: symmetry only appears due to plain reciprocity (praise)

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Examples

Plain reciprocity & Symmetry: talk (with) meet (with) share np (with) rhyme (with) collaborate (with) marry (acc) match (acc) similar (to) identical (to) parallel (to) neighbor (of) partner (of) sibling (of) cousin (of) twin (of) Pseudo-reciprocity & Non-symmetry: talk (to) meet (acc) fall in love (with) be in love (with) collide (with) hug (acc) kiss (acc) fuck (acc) embrace (acc) pet (acc) cuddle (acc) nuzzle (acc)

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Examples

Plain reciprocity & Symmetry: talk (with) meet (with) share np (with) rhyme (with) collaborate (with) marry (acc) match (acc) similar (to) identical (to) parallel (to) neighbor (of) partner (of) sibling (of) cousin (of) twin (of) Pseudo-reciprocity & Non-symmetry: talk (to) meet (acc) fall in love (with) be in love (with) collide (with) hug (acc) kiss (acc) fuck (acc) embrace (acc) pet (acc) cuddle (acc) nuzzle (acc)

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

Examples

Plain reciprocity & Symmetry: talk (with) meet (with) share np (with) rhyme (with) collaborate (with) marry (acc) match (acc) similar (to) identical (to) parallel (to) neighbor (of) partner (of) sibling (of) cousin (of) twin (of) Pseudo-reciprocity & Non-symmetry: talk (to) meet (acc) fall in love (with) be in love (with) collide (with) hug (acc) kiss (acc) fuck (acc) embrace (acc) pet (acc) cuddle (acc) nuzzle (acc) kiss with, hug with... (Hebrew, Greek...)

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

An apparent counter-example

(1) Sue and Kim are sisters

⇔ Sue is Kim’s sister and Kim is Sue’s sister

(2) Sue is Kim’s sister

⇒ Kim is Sue’s sister

A counter-example for RSG?

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

An apparent counter-example

(1) Sue and Kim are sisters

⇔ Sue is Kim’s sister and Kim is Sue’s sister

(2) Sue is Kim’s sister

⇒ Kim is Sue’s sister

A counter-example for RSG? Schwarz (2006), Partee (2008): x is sister of y asserts that x and y are siblings, and only presupposes that x is female.

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2 - The reciprocity-symmetry generalization

An apparent counter-example

(1) Sue and Kim are sisters

⇔ Sue is Kim’s sister and Kim is Sue’s sister

(2) Sue is Kim’s sister

⇒ Kim is Sue’s sister

A counter-example for RSG? Schwarz (2006), Partee (2008): x is sister of y asserts that x and y are siblings, and only presupposes that x is female. Thus, sister of is “Strawson symmetric” – truth-conditionally identical to sibling/brother of

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3 - Theory

Irreducibility of collective predication

Collectivity is a lexical primitive: simplex predicate ranging over sets not definable on the basis of other concepts

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3 - Theory

Irreducibility of collective predication

Collectivity is a lexical primitive: simplex predicate ranging over sets not definable on the basis of other concepts lexically reciprocal predicates = one species of irreducible collectivity

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3 - Theory

Some plain reciprocals

Collective Binary collaborate → collaborate with talk → talk with meet → meet with similar → similar to parallel → parallel to identical → identical to neighbor → neighbor of partner → partner of sibling → partner of cousin → cousin of The collective predicate is primitive; the binary predicate is derived

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3 - Theory

Some plain reciprocals

Collective Binary collaborate → collaborate with talk → talk with meet → meet with similar → similar to parallel → parallel to identical → identical to neighbor → neighbor of partner → partner of sibling → partner of cousin → cousin of The collective predicate is primitive; the binary predicate is derived Non-standard treatment of symmetric kinship terms...

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3 - Theory

The plainR Rule

x is cousin of y

def

= cousin({x, y})

≈ x and y share grandparents

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3 - Theory

The plainR Rule

x is cousin of y

def

= cousin({x, y})

≈ x and y share grandparents

x is similar to y

def

= similar({x, y})

≈ x and y share a property

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3 - Theory

The plainR Rule

x is cousin of y

def

= cousin({x, y})

≈ x and y share grandparents

x is similar to y

def

= similar({x, y})

≈ x and y share a property

The plainR Rule: R = λx.λy.P({x, y})

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3 - Theory

The plainR Rule

x is cousin of y

def

= cousin({x, y})

≈ x and y share grandparents

x is similar to y

def

= similar({x, y})

≈ x and y share a property

The plainR Rule: R = λx.λy.P({x, y})

Lakoff & Peters (1969): logical collective → binary symmetry with plain reciprocals – part of RSG

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3 - Theory

The plainR Rule

x is cousin of y

def

= cousin({x, y})

≈ x and y share grandparents

x is similar to y

def

= similar({x, y})

≈ x and y share a property

The plainR Rule: R = λx.λy.P({x, y})

Lakoff & Peters (1969): logical collective → binary symmetry with plain reciprocals – part of RSG

But how about pseudo-reciprocals?

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3 - Theory

The puzzle of pseudo-reciprocals

(1) Sue & Dan hugged (2) Sue hugged Dan and Dan hugged Sue (2) ⇒ (1)

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3 - Theory

The puzzle of pseudo-reciprocals

(1) Sue & Dan hugged (2) Sue hugged Dan and Dan hugged Sue (2) ⇒ (1)

What does (1) “really mean”?

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3 - Theory

The puzzle of pseudo-reciprocals

(1) Sue & Dan hugged (2) Sue hugged Dan and Dan hugged Sue (2) ⇒ (1)

What does (1) “really mean”? Does (1) really entail (2), as previous works assume?

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3 - Theory

The puzzle of pseudo-reciprocals

(1) Sue & Dan hugged (2) Sue hugged Dan and Dan hugged Sue (2) ⇒ (1)

What does (1) “really mean”? Does (1) really entail (2), as previous works assume? Do we really want grammar to explain what collective hugs are?

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3 - Theory

A and B are hugging

?the woman is hugging the man

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3 - Theory

A and B are hugging?

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3 - Theory

A and B are hugging?

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3 - Theory

Kruitwagen et al.

A battery of tests, using illustrations and short films, which check things like:

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3 - Theory

Kruitwagen et al.

A battery of tests, using illustrations and short films, which check things like:

In a given situation: Is B talking to A? / Did B talk to A? Are A and B talking? / Did A and B talk?

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3 - Theory

Kruitwagen et al.

A battery of tests, using illustrations and short films, which check things like:

In a given situation: Is B talking to A? / Did B talk to A? Are A and B talking? / Did A and B talk? Many participants answer “no” to 1, but “yes” to 2, depending on the reaction of B to the whole event.

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3 - Theory

Kruitwagen et al.

A battery of tests, using illustrations and short films, which check things like:

In a given situation: Is B talking to A? / Did B talk to A? Are A and B talking? / Did A and B talk? Many participants answer “no” to 1, but “yes” to 2, depending on the reaction of B to the whole event.

Conclusion: Pseudo-reciprocity is a preferential strategy of a lexical concept, with no “logical” definition.

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4 - Collective intentionality

Collective intentionality

A hug is an act of collective intensionality.

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4 - Collective intentionality

Collective intentionality

A hug is an act of collective intensionality.

Searle (1990): “Collective intentional behavior is a primitive that cannot be analyzed as just the summation of individual behavior.”

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4 - Collective intentionality

Collective intentionality

A hug is an act of collective intensionality.

Searle (1990): “Collective intentional behavior is a primitive that cannot be analyzed as just the summation of individual behavior.”

An event e is typical for “Sue and Dan hugged” proportionally to two values: Sue and Dan’s CI as demonstrated in e the number of uni-directional hugs in e

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4 - Collective intentionality

Collective intentionality

A hug is an act of collective intensionality.

Searle (1990): “Collective intentional behavior is a primitive that cannot be analyzed as just the summation of individual behavior.”

An event e is typical for “Sue and Dan hugged” proportionally to two values: Sue and Dan’s CI as demonstrated in e the number of uni-directional hugs in e

Collective hug is a complex concept, but logically it simplex – not defined on the basis of meaning postulates using the “simpler” concept for binary hug.

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4 - Collective intentionality

Protoroles and protopredicates

Protoroles = “entailments of a group of predicates with respect to one of the arguments or each” (Dowty 1991)

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4 - Collective intentionality

Protoroles and protopredicates

Protoroles = “entailments of a group of predicates with respect to one of the arguments or each” (Dowty 1991)

→ distinct from morpho-syntax

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4 - Collective intentionality

Protoroles and protopredicates

Protoroles = “entailments of a group of predicates with respect to one of the arguments or each” (Dowty 1991)

→ distinct from morpho-syntax “group of predicates” → non-standard types (unary+binary)

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4 - Collective intentionality

Protoroles and protopredicates

Protoroles = “entailments of a group of predicates with respect to one of the arguments or each” (Dowty 1991)

→ distinct from morpho-syntax “group of predicates” → non-standard types (unary+binary) thematic arguments → Davidsonian

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4 - Collective intentionality

Protoroles and protopredicates

Protoroles = “entailments of a group of predicates with respect to one of the arguments or each” (Dowty 1991)

→ distinct from morpho-syntax “group of predicates” → non-standard types (unary+binary) thematic arguments → Davidsonian

Protopredicates = typed Davidsonian predicates without morpho-syntactic features

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4 - Collective intentionality

Types of protopredicates

agent patient collective

binary draw A B – collective shake- hands – – A,B A B A,B binary/ collective hug A,B A,B A,B

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4 - Collective intentionality

Implications for RSG

Type p-predicate Reciprocity Symmetry? b X − c plainR + bc pseudoR − plainR +

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4 - Collective intentionality

Summary: Protopredicates and the RSG

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5 - Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

Joost Zwarts Sophie Chesney Heidi Klockmann NWO VICI Grant 277-80-002 Partee (2008)

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6 - References

References I

Dimitriadis, A. (2008), Irreducible symmetry in reciprocal constructions, in E. Konig & V. Gast, eds, ‘Reciprocals and Reflexives: Theoretical and Typological Explorations’, De Gruyter, Berlin. Dong, Q. P. (1971), A note on conjoined noun phrases, in A. M. Zwicky, P. H. Salus, R. I. Binnick & A. L. Vanek, eds, ‘Studies out in left field: Studies presented to James D. McCawley on the occasion of his 33rd or 34th birthday’, Linguistics Research, Inc., Edmonton, pp. 11–18. Dowty, D. (1991), ‘Thematic proto-roles and argument selection’, Language 67, 547–619. Ginzburg, J. (1990), On the non-unity of symmetric predicates: Monadic comitatives and dyadic equivalence relations, in J. Carter, R.-M. D´ echaine, B. Philip & T. Sherer, eds, ‘Proceedings

  • f the Twentieth Annual Meeting of the North Eastern Linguistic Society’, University of

Massachusetts at Amherst, pp. 135–149. Gleitman, L. R., Gleitman, H., Miller, C. & Ostrin, R. (1996), ‘Similar, and similar concepts’, Cognition 58(3), 321–376. Lakoff, G. & Peters, S. (1969), Phrasal conjunction and symmetric predicates, in D. A. Reibel &

  • S. E. Schane, eds, ‘Modern Studies in English’, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall,
  • pp. 113–142.

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6 - References

References II

Partee, B. H. (2008), Symmetry and symmetrical predicates, in A. E. Kibrik et al., eds, ‘Computational Linguistics and Intellectual Technologies: Papers from the International Conference DIALOGUE”’, Institut Problem Informatiki, pp. 606–611. Schwarz, B. (2006), ‘Covert reciprocity and Strawson-symmetry’, Snippets 13, 9–10. Searle, J. R. (1990), Collective intentions and actions, in P. R. Cohen, J. Morgan & M. E. Pollack, eds, ‘Intentions in communication’, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

  • pp. 401–416.

Siloni, T. (2012), ‘Reciprocal verbs and symmetry’, Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 30(1), 261–320.

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