Academic Writing Harvard Michael Jayawardana (BSc Business [UoL], - - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Academic Writing Harvard Michael Jayawardana (BSc Business [UoL], PgD.CPS [Colombo], PMP, MBA [Leicester], PLD [INSEAD]) Outline Description Slide Number AW Fundamentals 03 - 08 Referencing 09 - 12 Plagiarism 13 - 14 Harvard Referencing
Michael Jayawardana
(BSc Business [UoL], PgD.CPS [Colombo], PMP, MBA [Leicester], PLD [INSEAD])
Harvard
Description Slide Number AW Fundamentals 03 - 08 Referencing 09 - 12 Plagiarism 13 - 14 Harvard Referencing System 15 - 46 Writing Assignments 47 - 67 Conclusion 68 - 72
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understanding of the subject
suggestions
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Kill him, Not Let Him Go Kill him Not, Let Him Go Saradiel – Died 1864 Federal Reserve Bank NY $ 20 Mil to Shalika ‘Fundation’ Bangladesh Hack – US $ 951 Mil Try
Reducing Bias by Topic
Style
Spelling
Major Words in Titles and Headings
Italics Use of Italics Abbreviations
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Former Pakistani PM Nawaz Sharif
2016
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Not Cautious ... shows that drinking a bottle of arrack daily, causes liver damage Cautious ... research would appear to show that drinking a bottle of arrack … evidence suggests that crystal meth may have an effect on
Not Concise Owing to the fact that provocative adverts can contribute towards Concise Because provocative adverts can contribute towards accidents
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Not Precise The 3D film ticket was expensive. A cupful of toddy was added to the cocktail. Precise The 3D film ticket was expensive at LKR 700. 10ml of toddy was added to the cocktail. Subjective The residue from the experiment was a beautiful blue colour. His contribution to the field of physics is important because. Objective The residue from the experiment was blue in colour. He made a significant contribution to the field of physics because.
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references – Academic Integrity is a Must!
acknowledged through references
(reference list) should be provided
thinking you are guilty of Plagiarism – the act of using somebody else’s work or ideas as your own
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Broadly speaking, common knowledge refers to information that the average, educated reader would accept as reliable without having to look it up. This includes: − Information that most people know, such as that water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit or that Barack Obama was the first American of mixed race to be elected president. − Information shared by a cultural or national group, such as the names of famous heroes or events in the nation’s history that are remembered and celebrated. − Knowledge shared by members of a certain field, such as the fact that the necessary condition for diffraction of radiation of wavelength from a crystalline solid is given by Bragg’s law. − However, what may be common knowledge in one culture, nation, academic discipline or peer group may not be common knowledge in another.
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1946) - Professor of anatomy and director of Harvard's zoological laboratory until his retirement in 1921.
common garden slug, Limax campestris.
accompanied by an explanatory footnote (figure); these are the first evidences
been adapted from the cataloguing system used then (and now) in the Library
author – year - title.
expression was “not introduced by Harvard University”.
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(websites, books, magazines, journals, papers)
a direct quote and including the reference
you acknowledge their work
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the ideas came from
any web based sources
Paraphrasing
presented in a new form by you
concisely on a single main idea
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your own thoughts
author’s ideas and acknowledging his/her work
end of the assignment. This list should be in alphabetical order by author
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The Publication Manual says to “prefer the active voice” (p. 77). Two main reasons. First, the active voice clearly lays out the chain of events: Lion eats mouse. With a passive voice sentence, the reader must wait until the end of the sentence to discover who was responsible for the action. When used in a long sentence, the passive voice may confuse readers. Second, the active voice usually creates shorter sentences. Although your paper should include a variety of sentence lengths, shorter sentences are usually easier to understand than longer ones.
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Quote | One Author Brand Positioning is identified as “the act of designing the company’s offering and image to occupy a distinctive place in the mind of the target market” (Kotler, 2003, p. 308). - Information Prominent - Quote | Two Authors This allowed the author to learn the “perspectives of those being studied” rather than imposing the conditions for study (Bryman and Bell, 2007, p. 425). Quote | Three to Five Authors | First Time V Next Time “The Product Era” came first (Tadevosyan, Sam, Dick and Bunny 2008, p. 12). “The Product Era” came first (Tadevosyan et al., 2008, p. 12). Six to Seven Authors Semi-structured interviewing allowed the author to direct the interview (Robson et al., 2002).
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Citing Several Works | Same Author | Same Year As discussed by Balmer (2001b), the terminology used in connection to corporate branding such as positioning and identity is “unclear and ambiguous” (p. 252). - Author Prominent - Citing Several Works | Same Author | Different Years | Separate by Semi Colom Semi-structured interviewing was vital to executing this strategy, as it provided a balance between structure and depth (Wayne, 1994; 1996). Citing Several Authors Collectively | Different Years Semi-structured interviewing allowed the author to direct the interview (Easterby-Smith et al., 2008; Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005; Robson, 2002).
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Short quotations - One author | Less than 40 words Hence, corporate branding has become a compass or directional tool for “employment, investment and, most importantly, consumer [and business] buying behaviour” (Balmer and Gray, 2003, p. 973). Longer quotations - One author | 40 or More than 40 words Quotation marks not required | 5 Indents Needed (1/2”) | Double Spacing T v Q Strategy must be considered in detail. Whittington (2001), for example, points
the four approaches to strategy… differ widely in their advice to
detached and sequential approach, offered as a universal norm. The Evolutionary and Processual perspectives are more cautious, each sceptical of strategists’ capacity to direct strategy effectively in this rational hierarchical way. (p. 37). Hence the analysis…………
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Direct Quotations – Be Flexible and Have Variety According to Kanye and Kim (2010), “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147). In 2010, Kanye and Kim noted that “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147). In fact, “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (Kanye & Kim, 2010, p. 147). “A flexible mind is a healthy mind,” according to Kanye and Kim’s (2010, p. 147) longitudinal study. Kanye and Kim’s (2010) results indicate that “a flexible mind is a healthy mind” (p. 147).
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Same Source – Do I have to Mention the Same Reference for Each Sentence? Ibid. Ibid points to the source that was cited in a preceding sentence.
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No Date of Publication | Use ‘no date’ As the approach selected was qualitative, “[the]…data collection technique
(Saunders et al., no date, p.152). When Author = Publisher | First Time V Next Time – Use Abbreviation This contradicts with the “Internal… brand building process” introduced by (The Corporate Publishing Group [TCPG], 2016, p. 1023). Different Authors | Same Surname For in-text references, include the initials of the authors in question to enable readers to differentiate between them. Among studies, we review M. A. Light and Light (2008) and I. Light (2006).
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Paraphrasing in Academic Writing To paraphrase means to rewrite a piece of source of material in our own way but still retain all the ideas we find in the piece of source materials. In paraphrasing the exact meaning of the source is kept, but the expressions are changed. The skill of paraphrasing needs understanding the source and being able to express it in different ways. Original China has long been the world’s most populous nation – but no one knew exactly how populous it was until last week (Hamp and Courter, 1984, p. 76). Paraphrase Although China has been the world’s most heavily populated country for many years, the exact population was not known until a week ago (H..)
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Paraphrasing Techniques Change the Grammar: The grammatical structure should be changed without changing the meaning by changing active to passive sentences or vice versa, joining up sentences or dividing long sentences and using sentence connectors. Example 1 Trained scientists performed this research. This research was performed by trained scientists. Example 2 Although there is a lot of evidence to support theory Y, not all scientists believe it. There is a lot of evidence to support theory Y; however, not all scientists believe it.
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Paraphrasing Techniques Change the Word Forms: We can change the form of word from noun to adjective or verb, or vice versa. We can also use simpler phrases or complex phrases. Example 1 When we look at a comparison between A and B....... When we compare A and B........ Example 2 There are a variety of solutions to plastic problem. There are various solutions to plastic problem.
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Paraphrasing Techniques Replace words or phrases with synonyms: Use different vocabularies whenever possible. Synonyms are commonly used. Some of the words from the original passage may appear in our paraphrase, but we should try to use synonyms. Example X is not allowed. X is not permitted. Change direct quotations to indirect quotations: Another way to paraphrase is by changing direct quotations into indirect quotations. Example He said, “The temperature in many desert regions is cold at night.” He said that the temperature in many desert regions was cold at night.
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Steps in Paraphrasing 1. Read the source carefully several times until it is fully understood. 2. Make a brief outline or simple list of the relevant points (notes) we remember from the source including the main idea (topic sentence), and the supporting points. 3. Reread the source quickly to make sure we have included all the important points. 4. Look up any words we do not understand and find synonyms for them. 5. Write the paraphrase by joining together the points from the list into proper sentence structure, using suitable grammar to make continuous piece of writing. Use our own words, but do not omit any essential ideas. 6. Reread the paraphrase, correcting the grammar and organisation if necessary. 7. Check the paraphrase against the source: Does the paraphrase still keep the meaning of the original?
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Summarising When you summarise, you provide a brief statement of the main points of an article, web page, chapter or book. Summarizing only lists the main topics or headings, with most of the detailed information being left out. A good summary, identifies the writer of the original text, synthesizes the writer’s key ideas and presents the information neutrally Summarizing and paraphrasing are somewhat different. A paraphrase is about the same length as the original source, while a summary is much
copy the exact wording of the original source. Follow the same rules as you would for paraphrase.
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Summarising – Example
Original text: America has changed dramatically during recent years. Not only has the number of graduates in traditional engineering disciplines such as mechanical, civil, electrical, chemical, and aeronautical engineering declined, but in most of the premier American universities engineering curricula now concentrate on and encourage largely the study of engineering science. As a result, there are declining offerings in engineering subjects dealing with infrastructure, the environment, and related issues, and greater concentration on high technology subjects, largely supporting increasingly complex scientific developments. While the latter is important, it should not be at the expense of more traditional engineering. Rapidly developing economies such as China and India, as well as other industrial countries in Europe and Asia, continue to encourage and advance the teaching of engineering. Both China and India, respectively, graduate six and eight times as many traditional engineers as does the United States. Other industrial countries at minimum maintain their output, while America suffers an increasingly serious decline in the number of engineering graduates and a lack of well-educated engineers. (169 words)
(Source: Excerpted from Frankel, E.G. (2008, May/June) Change in education: The cost of sacrificing fundamentals. MIT Faculty Newsletter, XX, 5, 13.
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Summarising – Example Cont.
One-paragraph Summary: In a 2008 Faculty Newsletter article, “Change in Education: The cost of sacrificing fundamentals,” MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel expresses his concerns regarding the current state of American engineering education. He notes that the number of students focusing on traditional areas of engineering has decreased while the number interested in the high-technology end of the field has increased. Frankel points out that other industrial nations produce far more traditionally-trained engineers than we do, and believes we have fallen seriously behind. (81 words) One-line summary: MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel (2008) has called for a return to a course of study that emphasizes the traditional skills of engineering, noting that the number of American engineering graduates with these skills has fallen sharply when compared to the number coming from other countries. (47 words)
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Paraphrasing Material When paraphrasing or referring to an idea contained in another work, you must provide a page or paragraph number. Changes from the Source Requiring no Explanation The first letter of the first word in a quotation may be changed to an uppercase or a lowercase letter. The punctuation mark at the end of a sentence may be changed to fit t the syntax.
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If you want to insert your own words, or different words, into a quotation, put them in square brackets [ ] – for clarity. According to Knox (2004) the organisation needs to build an integrated “value adding business system [for customers]” (p. 108). If you want to point out an error in a quotation (for example, a spelling mistake) do not correct it; instead write [sic]. It is important for employees of an organisation to identify and accept the “gols [sic], vision and mission” of its employer (Tadevosyan et al., 2008, p. 22).
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If the original text uses italics, state that the italics are in the original source. Secondly, the “Product/Service [emphasis original] Performance” of the company matters (Knox, 2004, p. 109). If you want to emphasise something in a quotation, you can put the emphasised words in italics and state that you have added the emphasis. Firstly, the company must consider its “Overall Reputation [which is]” important to understand its reason for existence [emphasis added] (Knox, 2004, p. 109).
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Secondary Referencing - When citing a source you have not read yourself, but which is referred to in a source you have read This leads to the “Conceived [Positioning]” of a company (Kapferer cited in Tadevosyan et al., 2008, p. 46). Making changes to quotations - If you omit part of the quotation, this is indicated using three dots … (called ellipsis). It is a crucial element in placing the company’s core values in the “hearts…
Do not use ellipsis points at the beginning or end of any quotation unless, to prevent misinterpretation.
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Page Numbers
One page referred to (Wells 1992, p. 4) Pages that are not in sequence (Smith 1996, pp. 1, 4 & 6) Pages that are in sequence (Jones & Mackay 1998, pp. 25 - 26) Pages from a web site (Kelly & McWhirter 1997, p. 1 of 2)
Academic Writing – Michael Jayawardana
No Page Number Available If page numbers are not available, as can be the case with electronic sources, then you cannot include a page number. However, if the source indicates paragraph numbers, use the abbreviation “para” and the relevant number. If the paragraph number is not visible, cite the heading and the paragraph number following it. As Myers (2000) aptly phrased it, "this is ridiculous" (para. 5).
Printed Books Book with One Author - Citation order Author’s Surname & Initials | Year of Publication in round brackets | Title (in italics) | Edition in Round Brackets (if later than first edition) | Place of Publication: Publisher. In-text citation The next era (1960s) saw positioning by a product’s image within a crowded marketplace where consumers had more choice than before (Kapferer, 2004). Reference list Kapferer, J. N. (2004). The New Strategic Brand Management (2nd ed.). London: Kogan Page.
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Book with Two or Three Authors In-text citation Such questions were “[formulated] like open questions but [required] a particular focus or direction” (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, 2007, p. 330). Reference list Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2007). Research Methods for Business Students (4th ed.). Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Book with More than Three Authors In-text citation Differentiation of the corporate brand is hence hedged to this inter linked process of positioning (Esch et al., 2006). Reference list Esch, F. R., Tomczak, T., Kemstock, J., & Langner, T. (2006). Corporate Brand
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Book with an Editor or Editors In-text citation The formation of leadership was examined in Glynn and Woodisde (1987). Reference list Glynn, M. S., & Woodside, A. G., (Eds.). (2009). Business to Business Brand Management: Theory, Research and Executive Case Study Exercises. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. Book with No Author In-text citation Employees are the main point of engagement with other types of stakeholders (Total Relationship Marketing, 2002). Reference list Total Relationship Marketing (2002). Great Britain: Butterworth Henemann.
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Printed Journal Articles One Author - Citation order Author’s Surname & Initials | Year of Publication in round brackets | Title of Article with single quotation marks | Title of Journal (in italics) | Volume (in italics) | Part in round brackets | Page Range In-text citation On the other hand, a majority of studies concerning positioning strategy have been directed towards B2C market activities as opposed to being B2B (Bhat and Reddy, 1998). Reference list Bhat, S., & Reddy, S. K. (1998). ‘Symbolic and Functional Positioning of Brands’. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 15 (1), 32-43.
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Online Journal Articles The great majority of electronic journals available through library web pages are part of journal collections, e.g. Ebsco, Ingenta, Emerald, Infotrac, JSTOR, Proquest, ScienceDirect. You should refer to the fact that you obtained the title
version, such as advertisements and letters from readers. In-text citation On the other hand, a majority of studies concerning positioning strategy have been directed towards B2C market activities as opposed to being B2B (Bhat and Reddy, 1998). Reference list Bhat, S., & Reddy, S. K. (1998), ‘Symbolic and Functional Positioning of Brands’. Journal
Consumer Marketing 15 (1). 32-43. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/jiol/
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Newspaper Articles Printed Newspapers Surname(s) | Initial(s) | Year, Month and Date of Publication in round brackets | Title of Article | Title of Newspaper in Italics | Page Number(s) preceded by p./pp. In-text citation Internet via Google loon has been promised (De Silva, 2008). Reference list De Silva, S. (2016, February 16). First Google Loon Balloon Enters Lanka’s Airspace, Daily FT, p.1
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Online Newspapers In-text citation According to Punsiri (2016) there is a significant decline in nepotism. Reference list Punsiri, S. (2016, February 2016). Sri Lanka Rejects Nepotism, Daily FT, p. 1. Retrieved From http://www.ft.lk/article/525883/Sri-Lankans-reject- nepotism--LMD/TNS-poll Use of DOI A DOI is a unique, permanent identifier assigned to articles in many
full-text, abstract or database record). If there is a DOI, no other retrieval information is necessary. DOI when available replaces ‘Retrieved From’.
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In-text citation PsycINFO (n.d.) or (PsycINFO, n.d.) Reference List
Channel]. Retrieved from http://youtube.com/PsycINFO
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Refer HANDOUT 7 for more
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https://www.mendeley.com/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gv6_HuCYExM
How to use Mendeley
Michael Jayawardana
(BSc Business [UoL], PgD.CPS [Colombo], PMP, MBA [Leicester], PLD [INSEAD])
Harvard
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Analyzing the question Finding relevant sources Constructing an outline Writing a first draft Redrafting, editing & checking
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Conclusion of each article to find the 2nd layer of core articles (25?)
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evidence, definitions and further explanations of the idea/topic
Paragraphs must be well linked. Coherence can be achieved via linking words and phrases
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Please refer the document – Linking Words for Students
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and focus of the paper
previous work in the area, and on research gaps
going to deal with the topic, and the various stages you will take before reaching the Conclusion
to you, for instance in relation to your professional context
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In recent times, the predominant share of an organization’s focus has lingered on product brand positioning (Tadevosyan et al., 2008). However, increasingly, there is now a shift towards understanding how an organisation acts and conducts itself in the
have become sharper and more cognizant of the bigger
merits alone (Marsden, 2002). Corporate Branding (CB) is required to showcase the company and its values before the customer which is accounted for in product evaluation (Aaker, 1995).
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Signposting is an important feature of academic writing which enables the reader to follow your development of the topic. You need to signal how the various sections of your writing link together, and what you are going to discuss next and why. There are two aspects to signposting:
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At the beginning of this sub-section the author portrayed CBP as a navigational tool. According to Upshaw cited in Tadevosyan et
CBP as the “compass… [which provides this navigation]”. The next section will explain the relationship between CBP and an
factors that maximize the benefits of their association
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Figure out your Argument Carry out ‘Critical Reading’ - allows you to identify how an argument should be structured and persuasive [Refer Article titled – Academic and Critical Reading]. Set out your objectives and structure. Through ‘Critical Writing’ you can use evidence and arguments to influence the opinions of the reader.
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Critical Reading – How should you think?
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What is an Argument?
− An argument asserts and provides reasons in support of a particular point of view to persuade. − An argument either advances an opinion or recommends an action. − All arguments consist of an assertion and evidence: Assertion because evidence Evidence therefore assertion − Arguments cannot always be proven with 100% certainty. − When you evaluate an argument, first determine if it is certain or merely probable. − Possibility Spectrum: Impossible – Possible – Probable - Certain
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Never have Faulty Reasoning (Fallacies): Persuasive but Wrong! - 06 types Fallacy: Type 01
“Either you are for us or against us.”
Why is the statement an example of faulty reasoning? A. Relies on the threat of force to persuade B. Presents only two options when other options exist Answer: This statement contains the false assumption that only two
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Never have Faulty Reasoning (Fallacies): Persuasive but Wrong! - 06 types Fallacy: Type 02
“Why should we believe that the Minister will improve state schools when he sends his children to a grant-maintained school?”
Why is the statement an example of faulty reasoning? A. Presents a personal attack B. Asks a rhetorical question Answer: This statement attempts to discredit the person presenting the argument rather than the argument itself. It is a fallacy of motive.
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Never have Faulty Reasoning (Fallacies): Persuasive but Wrong! - 06 types Fallacy: Type 03
“When people discuss universal human rights, they fail to take into account that what may be right in one culture is wrong in another.”
Why is the statement an example of faulty reasoning? A. Inconsistently applies a key term B. Relies on irrelevant evidence Answer: This This statement contains a vague term that is not defined
“what is proper.” It is a fallacy of ambiguity.
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Never have Faulty Reasoning (Fallacies): Persuasive but Wrong! - 06 types Fallacy: Type 04
“Gun ownership shouldn’t be prohibited. You can kill someone with a cricket bat but no one proposes to ban ownership of cricket bats.”
Why is the statement an example of faulty reasoning? A. Assumes a single action will lead to a series of undesirable consequences B. Compares two items that are not alike Answer: This statement relies on irrelevant evidence to support an
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Never have Faulty Reasoning (Fallacies): Persuasive but Wrong! - 06 types Fallacy: Type 05
“My first child slept through the night but the second is a light
siblings.”
Why is the statement an example of faulty reasoning? A. Assumes a causal relationship between two events B. Applies the traits of a small group to a large group Answer: This This statement assumes the properties of a small sample population are also true of a general population. It is a generalisation.
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Never have Faulty Reasoning (Fallacies): Persuasive but Wrong! - 06 types Fallacy: Type 06
“Every severe recession was preceded by a Conservative
recessions.” Why is the statement an example of faulty reasoning?
A. Assumes a causal relationship between two events B. Puts forward an assertion that does not follow from the evidence Answer: This The pattern observed could be coincidental. It is a fallacy of false causation.
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Critical Writing Involves
to persuade others
action
Descriptive Writing Critical Writing States what happened Identifies the significance States what something is like Evaluates strengths and weaknesses Explains how something works Indicates why something will work best States options Gives reasons for selecting each option Lists details Evaluates the relative significance of details
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Previous research points to a wide number of studies conducted on the concept of CB as a whole and its benefits (Fombrun and van Riel, 1997; Greyser, 1999; Aaker and Joachimsthaler, 1999). However there is limited empirical research available
“[successful]…corporate brand management” in terms of pairing its key variables - brand identity and brand positioning (Knox and Bickerton, 2003:998). Based on the findings of Balmer and Gray (2003), it can also be seen that there is confusion between the concepts of CB and Corporate Brand Identity. As discussed by Balmer (2001b:252), the terminology used in connection to CB such as positioning and identity is “unclear and ambiguous”. There seems to be no widely accepted definitions on these two subjects (Melewar and Jenkins, 2002).
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Cause and Effect Flooding results from heavy rain Cohesion The former. . ., while the latter. . . Comparison His work is more interesting than hers Discussion Benefits and drawbacks Examples Many departments, for instance medicine, Generalisations Computers are useful machines Numbers The figures in the report. . . Opening Paragraphs In recent years the internet has. . . Restatement and Repetition In other words. . . Style Precise, semi-formal, impersonal and objective Synonyms Interpretation/explanation Variation in Sentence Length Long vs. short sentences Visual Information Graphs, charts and tables
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Reader should get a clear impression that the purposes of the assignment have been met It typically includes:
The Introduction and Conclusion must link together; at the end of your paper, you should look back at the goals you set out in the Introduction and discuss how you achieved them
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This study set out to determine the relationship between two key variables - CBP and an organisation’s CBI. The primary goal was to identify a set of success factors that could synergize collaboration between these two elements. The results of the study indicate that there could be multiple CBIs with an organisation and that misalignment between such identities must be managed. This viewpoint is upheld and is in line with Balmer’s (2012:1066) “AC4ID Test” where seven different types of identities were discussed. Although all seven were not identified by this study, four important types were discussed, especially in connection to companies’ “core competencies”, (Prahlad and Hamel 1990:85).
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─ What is my purpose? ─ Do I understand what I’ve written? ─ Is it vague? ─ Do I understand key words? ─ Am I clear about why my main point is important? ─ What question does each paragraph answer? ─ Is the evidence accurate?
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─ Choose an issue worth arguing ─ Express your ideas and arguments clearly ─ Define key terms ─ Use relevant sources and evidence ─ Acknowledge counter-arguments & give evidence to refute them ─ Logically order arguments ─ Signpost the direction of arguments ─ Temper your findings
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─ Anticipate pressure ─ Ask for help from your instructor or supervisor ─ Get advice ─ Get academic support ─ Manage your time ─ Give your mind a break ─ Value academic integrity ─ Be original ─ Aim for the best result ─ Teach and help others - collaborate ─ Teach your-self new skills to make life easier ─ Make writing second nature
Academic Writing – Michael Jayawardana
Michael Jayawardana | michael.jayawardana@gmail.com | +94772277887 |